Author: tjlinzy (Page 1 of 2)

George Washington Sends Nathaniel Gist – Peace with Cherokee

2 May 2018 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

Background

In the summer and fall of 1776, the Cherokee had attacked the backwoods settlements of Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. The settlers had been creeping further and further into Cherokee lands and the Cherokee were fed up. The situation had been aggravated by the fact that the patriots of the area had stopped British trade goods entering through the traditional trading routes into Cherokee country at the beginning of the American Revolutionary War (ARW). However, the patriots had not yet been able to raise enough trade goods themselves to provide for the Cherokee needs. The British had been trying to help the Cherokee and keep them on the King’s side in preparation for war with backcountry Loyalists against the patriots. However, with trade slim and frustrations high, the Cherokee had struck in the early summer of 1776.

The too early strike without coordinated British help was disastrous. The new American states had responded with a ferocity that the Cherokee had not seen seen the British had cut a swath through the Cherokee towns not quite twenty years earlier in the French and Indian War. After the Cherokee strikes, the patriots organized from several approaches and destroyed town after town and all of the crops they found during the harvest season in the autumn of 1776. By the end of 1976, the Cherokee had given up everything and were nearly destitute. The calmer heads on each side had begun to make peace overtures by early 1777. The patriot states saw an opening and began the negotiations, but the progress was slow. Their goal was primarily security for their backcountry patriot settlers and a free area to operate in to control the backcountry Loyalists which the British were also actively encouraging and supplying.

George Washington Sends Nathaniel Gist

General George Washington sent Nathaniel Gist to seek peace with the Cherokee for another reason. Washington knew that he would need those backcountry patriots to keep the Loyalists at bay, but he also knew that he would eventually need them to confront the coming British extension of the war into the southern states.

Nathaniel Gist was the son of Washington’s old friend Christopher Gist who had navigated the Virginia and Pennsylvania Indian frontier with Washington in the lead up to the French and Indian War and thereafter. Nathaniel had his father’s way with frontier folk, white and Indian. He was known by the Cherokee (some said he was the father of Sequoyah, the father of the Cherokee syllabary) due to his trading activities in the Cherokee country prior to the ARW, so his approach would be especially welcomed by the Cherokee as an honest broker. Nathaniel had been recently commissioned by Washington to raise a regiment that he would command for the Continental Army. Gist probably did not want his first action to be trying to quell an ongoing Cherokee rebellion in the south, so he had personal incentive to make peace as well.

Washington wanted Nathaniel Gist to recruit rangers and scouts from the Cherokee in return for peace. This was probably designed to have the Cherokee warriors act as allied working hostages. Having them in patriot control during the war would be a great help in keeping the area at peace, but also to make the most of their local knowledge to keep the British agents and Loyalists at bay. When Gist arrived in the Overhill Cherokee country, he made it clear to the Cherokee that the patriots would continue their war in Cherokee country if the Cherokee did not make some concessions and agree to rebuff British and Loyalist approaches for help.

Although the British Agent Alexander Cameron tried to convince the Overhill Cherokee that the peace overtures by Nathaniel Gist were a trick, the Cherokee eventually made it to the peace conference with the Virginians. The Carloinians were holding peace conferences further south with the Lower and Middle town Cherokee at roughly the same time. By the summer of 1777, the Cherokee had gained few concessions from the patriots, but had secured peace by giving up some land, turning in known Loyalists, and breaking contact with the British. In return, they received assurances that no more Cherokee land would be sought and that the patriots would keep the frontier settlers in order. Of course, in such a fractious time, both sides reneged on particulars through the rest of the ARW. However, the patriots had secured what mattered most to them — a secure backcountry south of Kentucky. This was especially helpful to the irregular patriot forces that harried the British in the Carolinas and eventually forced the British to move north to Yorktown. The rest is history, as they say, but so was this little vignette about Nathaniel Gist.

The American Indian Wars Were Not Genocide

1 November 2016 / tjlinzy / 2 Comments

Photo credit – By Carptrash (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

In some of my reading on the laws of war, military honor, and the American Indian wars, I chanced upon Guenter Lewy’s article in Commentary, September 2004 entitled, “Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?” In a logical step-by-step approach, Lewy lays out why the tragic displacement of the American Indian was not genocide. Fundamentally, the term “genocide” is a modern legal concept that was not enshrined in law during the time the American Indians were being attacked and dispossessed of their traditional homelands. It led Lewy to Gordon Leff’s quote,

[history] must always be contextual: it is no more reprehensible for an age to have lacked our values than to have lacked our forks.¹

Which reminded me of the Clausewitz quote I used in my dissertation,

…[E]very age has its own kind of war, its own limiting conditions, and its own peculiar preconceptions. Each period, therefore, would have held to its own theory of war, even if the urge had always and universally existed to work things out on scientific principles. It follows that the events of every age must be judged in the light of its own peculiarities. One cannot, therefore, understand and appreciate the commanders of the past until one has placed oneself in the situation of their times, not so much by a painstaking study of all of its details as by an accurate appreciation of its major determining features.²

If we do apply modern legal, moral, ethical, and cultural concepts to past events, do we not need to do it across all cultural entities? Would it not apply to the destruction of the Erie and Neutral by the Iroquois? The Crow, Arikara, and Pawnee at the hands of the Sioux? The total annihilation of the “Red-Haired people” in the Great Basin by the Paiute?

If so, how far do we go back? Are we limited by those who kept plausible records of their deeds or would archaeological evidence count?

I am eternally thankful for being born in an age where genocide has been legally defined and applied to the laws of war, but I do not for a minute think we can apply it retroactively with any degree of justice.

¹No reference made in the Lewy article, but I think it is from – Leff, Gordon. 1969. History and Social Theory. University, Ala: University of Alabama Press.

²p. 593, Clausewitz, Carl von, Michael Howard, and Peter Paret. 1976. On War. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

Northern Indian View of Southern Indian Participation in American Revolutionary War – 26 January 1779

17 October 2016 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

Whilst at the Newberry Library in Chicago, I read the following in Henry Hamilton’s journal of the Vincennes campaign, there is an interesting account of the links between the southern Indians, especially the Creeks, and the midwestern Indians, especially the Shawnees.

26th [ed. January, 1779]– The Chiefs of the following nations assembled at the fort this morning–Shawanese, Delawares, Wyandatts, Ottawas Chippoweys, Miamis, Ouiattanons, Quiquaboes, and Peankashaas–(239)
Egushewai rose up, and in the usual stile addressed the supreme being, thanking him for granting us this opportunity of assembling to speak our minds, expressed his good wishes to all present, to His Majesty, the great Chief at Quebec, all His Majesty’s Officers and Soldiers in the name of the chiefs present– then directed his speech to the Shawanese and Delawares, in particular, desiring them to be strong & to hold their Father by the hand as well as his Indian Children.
The master of life has no doubt taken compassion upon us since he has allowed us to assemble as friends in this place, let us then be sincere in our union, and act in concert for the defence of our lands. We see our father was foremost to rise up, and come thus far to frustrate the designs of the Virginians.
Brothers! You know there is a great tree under which we were used to confer peaceably and speak our minds, this tree grows at Detroit; let it be our study to keep that tree strait, that it may not bend to one side or another– The branches of this tree extend to a great distance and rise to the clouds, who is there capable of hurting even the bark of that tree? no one–
You may recollect that last spring some Chickasaas and Cherakees came to Detroit to water that Tree, I therefore recommend to you once more to be strong, & to defend your possessions, which your father is doing his best to preserve for us.
–The Shawanese Strangers then spoke– Father and you our brethren listen to us! five Moons are now passed since we left our Village to go to the Creek Country, from whence we are just arrived– When we last went from this place the Officer who commanded (Captn Helm) gave us a letter for the chief of the Creeks, but as we feared it might contain something contrary to the wellfare of the Indians, we have brought it back unopend, & now put it into your hands–
//This letter contained an exhortation to the Creeks, to discredit the reports of the English who always told them lies, to require them to remain quiet, assuring them that the Ouabache Indians had joined the Americans, and exulting the power and credit of the Americans.//
We have brought a Peoria Woman who was. a prisoner among the Creeks, and whom they deliverd to me, that I might bring her to her nation, but meeting Kissingua who told us he was allied to the Peoria nation, and who asked her of us saying he would deliver her to her friends, we gave her up to him–
There is a white man with him (Hazle)–
Kissingua desired us to tell his brethren of this river, to assemble any prisoners they may have among them belonging to the Creeks, as he designed bringing on his return any of their prisoners resident among the Creeks–
The Shawanese then produced a long white Belt from the great chief of the Creeks, which he desired might be forwarded to the Ouiattanons, and by them sent to the Lake Indians that all the nations might be acquainted with the friendly intentions of the Creeks towards them, and of their enmity to the Americans– that this belt opend a road of communication between them, which should always be kept dear, so as a child might walk with safety–
He then deliverd a twist of Tobacco for the same Indians, desiring they might smoke it, as the chief of the Creeks did, when he thought on good things, & had compassion on the Women and Children of his nation–
The Shawanese further said that the upper towns of the Creeks had not taken up the hatchet against the Americans until the last Spring, but that at present they were all engaged, and had made their way as far as to the Old Shawanese Villages, & had destroyed several small forts–
That the English had eight Forts on, and near the coast– that the Rebels had made an attempt on the greatest called the Stone fort, but that the Indians had met them on their March and repulsed them– That 800 of the inhabitants had come in to beg protection from His Majesty’s officers– That they were in the utmost distress for want of cloathing, and at variance among themselves– He added that the Southern Indians were never so well supplyed as at present, owing to the care of Mr. Stewart the Superintendant–

Substance of a Conference with the Indians, St. Vincennes, January 26, 1779, in I H C, I, 394-397. See also Hamilton to Haldimand, St. Vincennes, January 24, 1779, in ibid., 389-393.
I read in it in John D. Barnhart’s book Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark in the American Revolution with Unpublished Journal of Lieut. Gov. Henry Hamilton, edited by John D. Barnhart , (R. E. Banta, Crawfordsville, Indiana, 1951), but found it online here;
Source; http://www.in.gov/history/3010.htm Last accessed on 1 March 2011.

I think this is interesting to help make the case that the southern and midwestern Indians had more that just novel links. This seems to present the southern Indians, especially the Creeks, as fairly knowledgeable and supporting of the midwestern Indians attempts to keep the American settlers at bay. The Shawnees had familial links with the Muscogee [Creeks] people and they obviously used them to keep a communication channel open in the American Revolution.

Maps, Boundaries, Whites and Indians

17 October 2016 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

One of the issues that quite often comes up when discussing Indians and the treaties they signed with the whites is whether they knew what they were signing. Obviously English written documents were a struggle for most Indians, but there is ample proof that this impediment did not extend to maps. In The Indian Boundary in the Southern Colonies 1763-1775, Louis De Vorsey, Jr. quotes Jean Baptiste Trudeau, a Frenchman, thus;

“Although the Indians have no more knowledge of geography than of the other sciences, they make delineations upon skins, as correctly as can be, of the countries with which they are acquainted. Nothing is wanting but the degrees of latitude and longitude. They mark the northern direction to the polar star, and conformably to that mark out the windings and turnings of the rivers, the lakes, marshes, mountains, woods, prairies and paths. They compute distances by day’s or half day’s journey.”¹

De Vorsey goes on to add Thomas Pownall, a colonial governor, and William Bartram, a prominent diarist of the southern Indians, as confirming the extraordinary skill at maps and navigating of the Indians they encountered.

I believe this is a rich source of understanding of what was going on at treaty conferences and negotiations between land hungry whites and Indians. The Indians were not dupes who could be fooled by a few errant lines on a map. English words may have flummoxed them, but they knew the lay of the land in the midwest far better than the whites knew it. Rum and shady dealing may have weakened the Indians, but I have seen no evidence that the Indians did not understand the graphic representations of the land they were fighting for.

1 – De Vorsey, Jr., Louis (1966), THE INDIAN BOUNDARY IN THE SOUTHERN COLONIES, 1763-1775.
(The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill), pp. 46-47

Billy Caldwell or Sagaunash

17 October 2016 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

Billy Caldwell was an interesting character to say the least. Son of a British man and a Mohawk woman, he led a unique life that brought him into contact with most of the key players in the British/Indian community around Amherstburg during the War of 1812.
See his biography in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online.

William Johnson Saving Baron von Dieskau from American Indian Warrior — By Benjamin West, 1738-1820. Public Domain

Midwest Indians and North American Methods of Warfare

17 October 2016 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

This is a survey of the methods of warfare employed by the Indians and, at times, by the British Army. As Skaggs and Nelson mention, the modern trend of the study of the Indian midwest can be traced back to a seminal work edited by Helen Hornbeck Tanner entitled Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History. This work is a classic in unifying geography, cartography, ethnology, and history into a single volume that provides an overview of how the Indians viewed the midwest. The Atlas provides an antidote to most European historical depictions of the area as an unsettled wilderness by provided a chronology of the Indian settlement of the area. Another book that came before Tanner, but is still widely quoted is the classic Council Fires on the Upper Ohio by Randolph C. Downes that set the standard for telling Indian history from the Indian point of view. Downes explains how the Indians managed to hold back loss of their homelands during much of the Sixty Years’ War by playing the whites off of each other.
In contrast to the traditional histories of the era and area is the relatively new field of Ethnohistory. In older histories, European actors were followed minutely, but the Indians were often mere foils built from racial prejudices and stereotypes, both good and bad. Ethnohistories and other studies that used ethnohistories to build a fuller view of all parties proliferated from the 1960s to the present day. They provided a much needed tonic to the traditional view and over time outgrew their earlier cloying depictions of Indians as completely naive and faultless in the conflicts. An example of this growth in the context of this paper is the sensitive issue of scalping. During the early days of Ethnohistory, a myth took hold that the Indians only began scalping when the Europeans introduced scalp bounties. James Axtell took great pains to dismantle the myth with ethnic, archaeological, forensic, and artistic studies in ‘The Unkindest Cut, Or Who Invented Scalping’ in The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America. In subsequent books, Axtell provides further detail that Indians were not just the pawns or unwilling dupes of the colonising Europeans. Axtell depicts the Indian shrewdness and subtlety to show how they retained their culture and values for two and a half centuries after first contact. Furthering Axtell’s work is Richard White’s The Middle Ground which disputed the traditional view that Indians and Whites were always at odds. White explains that the Great Lakes region was often a place of cooperation and conciliation. Although initially incomprehensible to each other, Indians and Whites over time concocted ways to understand each other. Values were often compromised by both sides to establish a working world from which each could profit. This view of Indians and Whites living together, albeit with some difficulty, has continued through recent ethnohistories.
Although most explorations of Indian and White interaction in the midwest are from the Great Lakes and Ohio valley, Kathryn E. Holland Braund examines the trade in deerskins between the British and the Creek Indians in the Gulf of Mexico south. In much the same way that the Iroquois controlled the Ohio interior through their connections with the British on the coast, so did the Creeks control the trade with the interior tribes of Choctaw, Chickasaw, and to a lesser degree, the Cherokee. This alignment would later be the basis for conflicting alliances amongst the tribes as it was in the north, but with contrary results due to local constraints. Braund, along with Gregory Waselkov, edited and annotated the papers of one of the most exacting observers of the early southern wilderness and its Indians on the eve of the American Revolutionary War, William Bartram. Bartram, a Quaker natural philosopher, went to great pains to be objective in treatment of the natural surroundings, Indians, and the whites he encountered in the area. Braund and Waselkov add value in assessing the veracity with other accounts and archives from the era.
Colin G. Calloway, one of the foremost scholars of Indians and their contact with Europeans, continues the trend of challenging Indian and White stereotypes. In New Worlds for All, Calloway counters many of the stereotypes in pointing out that communication and transportation networks existed long before the Europeans arrived, but they quickly became shared. Calloway also exposes the obvious in that horticulturist midwestern Indians who fought the ever moving European settlers would have found it odd that they were considered the nomads. Calloway also makes some interesting observations in the ways Scottish Highlanders and Indians were and were not alike. This comparative study is especially pertinent to this paper as both groups experienced the British Army as foes and employers in the eighteenth century with many of the attending issues of honour and atrocities present. In The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America, Calloway makes the point that the first declaration of independence in North America came from the Indians of the Great Lakes with Pontiac’s rebellion. The end of the Seven Years’ War and the transfer of so much land from the French to the British without even consulting the Indians who lived on the land made 1763 a critical juncture for all three parties involved. Moving from Pontiac’s rebellion to the American Revolutionary War, Calloway describes how the different tribes and villages of Indians experienced the war. When the primary goal was to preserve their culture, land, and life, it is not surprising to find that the revolution split Indians as well as Britons. Each group or geographical area had to choose a side or try to stay out of the way as best they could, much like the colonists. In what might be the only published history that traces a segment of the Sixty Years’ War in a unified form, Calloway provides a short history of the Shawnees in The Shawnees and the War for America. This small volume is an excellent introduction into how all of the wars from 1755 to 1815 could be seen from a viewpoint other than the European. The Shawnees were originally a southern tribe that moved into the Ohio valley with European expansion. They and the Delaware, who had also moved west to disentangle from the Whites, formed the basis for the coming Indian confederation attempts to stop the westward spread of settlement. Tecumseh, a Shawnee with a Creek mother, would form the ultimate expression of this attempt in the War of 1812 with a pan-Indian confederacy.
The various attempts at Indian unity are explored in A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 by Gregory Evans Dowd. Examining four tribes, two northern and two southern, Dowd describes a distributed spiritual awakening in the 1760s as the threat to their lands was becoming acute. Prophets were often key players in these revivals and often became the impetus for a return to native self-reliance and an assertion of the divine right to the land they occupied. Dowd provides no easy answers to the questions posed and insists the Indian spiritual awakening was not just atavism, because it often incorporated modern, even western ideals. Alfred Cave delves into this complicated world in ‘The Delaware Prophet Neolin: A Reappraisal’. Cave explains that there are two views of this phenomenon. One is that the Indians adopted many Judeo-Christian elements of sin and redemption into their revival sermons. The other is that it was a ground swell realisation of what they had lost and their contact with Whites merely gave it the appearance of western religion. Cave’s conclusion is that religion was also part of the ‘middle ground’, but in the end it was too elemental in its appeal to the Indians to have been completely foreign. Although Dowd makes clear that he is trying to explain an Indian phenomenon, he is not telling the story from the Indian point of view. In contrast, in Facing East from Indian Country, Daniel Richter examines the period’s history from a completely Indian point of view. Richter takes a decidedly Sixty Years’ War perspective by looking at the radical change that visited the midwest Indians after centuries of white contact, but Indian control of this vital geography.
Not all contact between Europeans and Indians produced war. Some Indians, and the Iroquois specifically, practiced diplomacy as high art to keep the major European powers balanced against each other. Timothy J. Shannon argues that the Iroquois withstood European expansion due to their tool of choice, diplomacy over fighting when it could be avoided. Through their deft use of diplomacy, they were able to get what they wanted more often than not. No discussion of Iroquois diplomacy would be complete without Sir William Johnson, the British Indian Superintendent of the north. Fintan O’Toole traces Johnson’s family from Ireland and Johnson’s quick rise under his uncle’s patronage (British Admiral Sir Peter Warren) in New York. By the Seven Years’ War Johnson is commanding British troops along with his beloved Mohawk and other Indians. Johnson turned a close relationship with the Indians into a very lucrative and influential post for him and his associates, such has his nephew Guy Johnson who succeeded him and the Mohawk Joseph Brant who was to lead Indians in battle throughout the period. Brant’s life can tell much of the Sixty Years’ War story from both the Indian and British perspective and Isabel Thompson Kelsay does so with Joseph Brant. Brant was educated in England and a frequent visitor. More than any other Indian leader, he understood the pressures on both sides.
John Sugden is the biographer of two other important Indian leaders of the Sixty Years’ War, Tecumseh and Blue Jacket, both Shawnees. Sugden removes the myth of Tecumseh that has made him the most famous Indian of the eastern woodlands and places him in the context of his people and time that explains his force and popularity. In Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees, Sugden brings this little known warrior to life. Blue Jacket was a contemporary of Brant, but much more grounded in the Ohio country with little direct contact with the British Army. Blue Jacket was a true Indian of his age. A chief that liked rum too much and held petty grudges over years, he was also a warrior amongst warriors and understood very early on that his people could never move far enough for the settlers to be happy.
One topic that pervades the Sixty Years’ War is the inescapable fact that the style of warfare in Europe was largely not practiced in North America due to cultural, manpower, and terrain constraints. This fact has been acknowledged from the earliest histories. However, a treasure trove of recent scholarship on the subject has redefined which style prevailed and which parties practiced which style when it was required. One of the earliest writers on the topic is John Mahon in ‘Anglo-American Methods of Indian Warfare, 1676-1794’ who stated that American folklore tried to portray the lone rifleman as differentiator in the woodlands, but in reality it was closely knit units that could fire and maneuver who mastered the art of North American warfare. Mahon goes on to say that those who mastered woodland warfare and could tie tactics to a strong set of strategic goals eventually won the conflicts. In ‘The Early American Way of War: Reconnaissance and Appraisal’, Don Higginbotham examines the ways that North American warfare affected social norms and civil-military relationships. Higginbotham asks some difficult questions that have yet to be answered, such as, why did early Republic writers like Franklin and Paine stress that republicanism was peaceful when all around them was evidence that it wasn’t? Matthew Ward shows the difficulty in getting British Army regulars to adapt to the Indian way of warfare in tactics as well as supplying them in the wilderness in ‘The European Method of Warring is Not Practiced Here: The Failure of British Military Policy in the Ohio Valley, 1755-1759’.
Armstrong Starkey, in the same vein as Richard White, argues that the development of warfare was as much about cultural exchange as it was cultural conflict. Starkey says that Indians and Europeans fought as allies as much as enemies and the experience transferred to both groups to form a new style of North American warfare. In Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in the Colonial Northeast, Guy Chet argues, in a geographically constrained way, that in the Northeast, the European way of war actually won out and the major battles there were more European than native. However, John Grenier takes a broader geographical view and comes to a different conclusion. According to Grenier, not only did Americans learn the Indian style of warfare, but learned to practice it with extravagant violence against civilians and their infrastructure. Finally, Peter Silver says that Indian warfare made disparate immigrant groups on the frontier join together, but it also made them accuse each other over old world differences when convenient. The fear mongering resulted in a savage racism against the Indians and any group that dared befriend them. It was into this complex situation that the British Army stepped in 1755 with mixed results.

My Sixty Years’ War Bibliography

3 August 2013 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

Abler, Thomas S. “Iroquois Cannibalism: Fact Not Fiction.” Ethnohistory 27, no. 4 (Autumn 1980): 309–16.

Adams, Henry. The War of 1812. 1st ed. Cooper Square Press, 1999.

Alden, John Richard. General Gage in America. Underlining. Louisiana State University, 1948.

Allen, R. His Majesty’s Indian Allies British Indian Policies. Dundurn Press, 1992.

Amherst, Jeffery & Webster, J. Clarence (Editor). The Journal of Jeffery Amherst. University of Chicago Press, 1931.

Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. Vintage, 2001.

Antal, Sandy. A Wampum Denied: Procter’s War of 1812. McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1997.

Axtell, James. The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America. Oxford University Press, USA, 1982.

Axtell, James, and William C. Sturtevant. “The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping.” The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 37, no. 3 (July 1980): 451–72.

Banner, Stuart. How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007.

Barr, Daniel P. “A Monster So Brutal: Simon Girty and the Degenerative Myth of the American Frontier, 1783-1900.” Essays in History, University of Virginia 40 (1998).

———. The Boundaries between Us: Natives and Newcomers along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750-1850. Kent State University Press, 2006.

Bartlett, Thomas. “The Augmentation of the Army in Ireland 1767-1769.” The English Historical Review 96, no. 380 (July 1981): 540–59.

Being and Becoming Indian: Biographical Studies of North American Frontiers. Dorsey Press, 1989.

Benn, Carl. The Iroquois in the War of 1812. University of Toronto Press, 1998.

Billias, George A. George Washingtons Opponents. WILLIAM MORROW & COMPANY INC, 1969.

Black, Jeremy. “Britain as a Military Power, 1688-1815.” The Journal of Military History 64, no. 1 (January 2000): 159–77.

———. “Britain’s Foreign Alliances in the Eighteenth Century.” Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies 20, no. 4 (Winter 1988): 573–602.

———. Crisis of Empire: Britain and America in the Eighteenth Century. Continuum, 2009.

———. Eighteenth-Century Britain, 1688-1783. 2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

———. “Eighteenth-Century English Politics: Recent Work.” Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies 28, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 607–33.

———. “Eighteenth-Century English Politics: Recent Work.” Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies 32, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 248–72.

———. Eighteenth-Century Europe. 2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.

Bland, Humphrey. Bland’s Military Discipline 1762. Naval and Military Press, 2009.

Blank, Dr Stuart. Researching British Military History on the Internet: The British Army and the Armies of the Commonwealth, Empire and Dominions. First edition. Alwyn Enterprises Ltd, 2007.

Booth, Russell H. The Tuscarawas Valley in Indian Days 1750-1797: Original Journals and Old Maps. Gomber House Press, 1994.

Bowman, James. Honor: A History. Encounter Books, 2007.

Boyd, Thomas. Simon Girty the White Savage. Kessinger Publishing Co, 2005.

Braddock, Edward. Major General Edward Braddock’s Orderly Books, from February 26 to June 17, 1755. Unknown, 2008.

Bragdon, Kathleen J. The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast. Columbia Univ. Press, 2001.

Braund, Kathryn E. Holland. Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815. University of Nebraska Press, 1996.

Bromley, Walter. “An Appeal to the Virtue and Good Sense of the Inhabitants of Great Britain, &c. in Behalf of the Indians of North America,” 1820. http://www.jstor.org/stable/60208393.

Brown, John P. Old Frontiers. Ayer Co Pub, 1971.

Brown, Richard D., and Thomas Paterson. Major Problems in the Era of the American Revolution, 1760-1791: Documents and Essays. 2nd ed. Wadsworth Publishing, 1999.

Brown, Wilburt S. Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana: 1814-1815. University of Alabama Press, 1969.

Brumwell, Stephen. Paths of Glory: The Life and Death of General James Wolfe. Hambledon Continuum, 2007.

———. Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755-1763. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

———. White Devil: A True Story of War, Savagery And Vengeance in Colonial America. Da Capo Press, 2006.

Buchanan, John. Jackson’s Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters. 1st ed. Wiley, 2001.

Calder, Isabel M. COLONIAL CAPTIVITIES, MARCHES AND JOURNEYS. Port Washington, NY Kennikat Press, 1967.

Calloway, Colin G. Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815. 1st ed. Univ of Oklahoma Pr, 1987.

———. New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.

———. “Simon Girty: Interpreter and Intermediary.” In Being and Becoming Indian: Biographical Studies of North American Frontiers, 38–50. Chicago: Dorsey, 1989.

———. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

———. The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America, 2006.

———. The Shawnees and the War for America: The Penguin Library of American Indian History Series. Viking Adult, 2007.

———. The World Turned Upside Down: Indian Voices from Early America. 1st ed. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1994.

———. White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal People and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America. Oxford University Press, USA, 2008.

Cashin, Edward J. William Bartram and the American Revolution on the Southern Frontier. Reprint. University of South Carolina Press, 2000.

Caughey, John Walton. McGillivray of the Creeks. Pbk. Ed. University of South Carolina Press, 2007.

Cayton, Andrew R.L., and Stuart D. Hobbs. The Center of a Great Empire: The Ohio Country in the Early Republic. Ohio University Press, 2005.

Clark, George. Col. George Rogers Clark’s Sketch of His Campaign in the Illinois in 1778-9. Applewood Books(MA), 2002.

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Who was George Rogers Clark?

20 April 2011 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

Who was George Rogers Clark in the American Revolution?

My notes on Notes on Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark in the American Revolution with Unpublished Journal of Lieut. Gov. Henry Hamilton

Date: Tuesday, 1 March 2011 16:28:42 GMT

Topic: Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark in the American Revolution with Unpublished Journal of Lieut. Gov. Henry Hamilton, edited by John D. Barnhart , (R. E. Banta, Crawfordsville, Indiana, 1951)

p. 11 Hamilton was present at Quebec with Wolfe. fought at Palins of Abraham, but not in the thick of it. Was captured and taken through a French/Indian camp where he saw scalps and Indians honing knives. Barnhart says this is proof that he was not naive to what scalping was.

p.24 – Hamilton writes to Lord Dartmouth in Sept 1776 about holding council with Indians and tried to keep them peaceful, but expected trouble in the Ohio country. MPC X p. 264-270

p. 207 – Shelbourne Papers in Clements – letter from Hamilton, “ Narrative of the Case of Henry Hamilton who in 1775 was appointed LT. Gov &Supperintendent at Detroit.

p. 209 – letter to Shelbourne – April 9, 1782- Hamilton defending himself against charges of cruelty.

p. 25 Gage to Carleton and Carleton saying “you know what sort of people they are” letter from Gage to to Carleton Sept 4 , 1774 in Germain Papers. Response, Sept 20, 1774, ibid, then Carleton to Dartmouth, June 7, 1775. IBID

Conclusion – Who Was George Rogers Clark?

Rogers was mythologized, but he did carry off a big operation in incredibly difficult circumstances. Hamilton was not a monster, but he was eager to please his superiors. He knew of the Indian ways and still unleashed them on the frontier. Hamilton was too impetuous in his operations, but he made a reasonable response to a difficult situation. The news of the French alliance with America blind-sided him and gave Clark the upper hand with the French inhabitants and the western Indians.

pp.168-171, Hamilton’s Journal 26 January 1779 at Vincennes,

“26th– The Chiefs of the following nations assembled at the fort this morning–Shawanese, Delawares, Wyandatts, Ottawas Chippoweys, Miamis, Ouiattanons, Quiquaboes, and Peankashaas–(239)

Egushewai rose up, and in the usual stile addressed the supreme being, thanking him for granting us this opportunity of assembling to speak our minds, expressed his good wishes to all present, to His Majesty, the great Chief at Quebec, all His Majesty’s Officers and Soldiers in the name of the chiefs present– then directed his speech to the Shawanese and Delawares, in particular, desiring them to be strong & to hold their Father by the hand as well as his Indian Children.

The master of life has no doubt taken compassion upon us since he has allowed us to assemble as friends in this place, let us then be sincere in our union, and act in concert for the defence of our lands. We see our father was foremost to rise up, and come thus far to frustrate the designs of the Virginians.

Brothers! You know there is a great tree under which we were used to confer peaceably and speak our minds, this tree grows at Detroit; let it be our study to keep that tree strait, that it may not bend to one side or another– The branches of this tree extend to a great distance and rise to the clouds, who is there capable of hurting even the bark of that tree? no one–

You may recollect that last spring some Chickasaas and Cherakees came to Detroit to water that Tree, I therefore recommend to you once more to be strong, & to defend your possessions, which your father is doing his best to preserve for us.

–The Shawanese Strangers then spoke– Father and you our brethren listen to us! five Moons are now passed since we left our Village to go to the Creek Country, from whence we are just arrived– When we last went from this place the Officer who commanded (Captn Helm) gave us a letter for the chief of the Creeks, but as we feared it might contain something contrary to the wellfare of the Indians, we have brought it back unopend, & now put it into your hands–

//This letter contained an exhortation to the Creeks, to discredit the reports of the English who always told them lies, to require them to remain quiet, assuring them that the Ouabache Indians had joined the Americans, and exulting the power and credit of the Americans.//

We have brought a Peoria Woman who was. a prisoner among the Creeks, and whom they deliverd to me, that I might bring her to her nation, but meeting Kissingua who told us he was allied to the Peoria nation, and who asked her of us saying he would deliver her to her friends, we gave her up to him–

There is a white man with him (Hazle)–

Kissingua desired us to tell his brethren of this river, to as semble any prisoners they may have among them belonging to the Creeks, as he designed bringing on his return any of their prisoners resident among the Creeks–

The Shawanese then produced a long white Belt from the great chief of the Creeks, which he desired might be forwarded to the Ouiattanons, and by them sent to the Lake Indians that all the nations might be acquainted with the friendly intentions of the Creeks towards them, and of their enmity to the Americans– that this belt opend a road of communication between them, which should always be kept dear, so as a child might walk with safety–

He then deliverd a twist of Tobacco for the same Indians, desiring they might smoke it, as the chief of the Creeks did, when he thought on good things, & had compassion on the Women and Children of his nation–

The Shawanese further said that the upper towns of the Creeks had not taken up the hatchet against the Americans until the last Spring, but that at present they were all engaged, and had made their way as far as to the Old Shawanese Villages, & had destroyed several small forts–

That the English had eight Forts on, and near the coast– that the Rebels had made an attempt on the greatest called the Stone fort, but that the Indians had met them on their March and repulsed them– That 800 of the inhabitants had come in to beg protection from His Majesty’s officers– That they were in the utmost distress for want of cloathing, and at variance among themselves– He added that the Southern Indians were never so well supplyed as at present, owing to the care of Mr. Stewart the Superintendant–“

Clements Library Holdings

21 March 2011 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

Clements Library Holdings for Sixty Years’ War Paper – 1755 to 1815

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:11:15 GMT

Topic: Samuel Finley Field Notes for Bouquet’s Expedition — 1764, 1846-1849 (bulk 1764)

Title: Samuel Finley Field Notes for Bouquet’s Expedition — 1764, 1846-1849 (bulk 1764)

Extent: 1 volume

Abstract: The Samuel Finley Field Notes for Bouquet’s Expedition (60 pages) contains detailed descriptions of the topography of Bouquet’s route though Pennsylvania and Ohio during his march against the Ohio Indians (October 2-25, 1864). Finley, a field engineer, recorded minute descriptions of physical and environmental features of the landscape, such as the direction and speed of rivers and streams, characteristics of the terrain, soil, and timber quality, and tree and undergrowth density.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:12:51 GMT

Topic: John Gorham papers — 1744-1772 (bulk 1748-1750 )

Title: John Gorham papers — 1744-1772 (bulk 1748-1750 )

Extent: 24 items (0.25 linear feet)

Abstract: The Gorham collection consists primarily of materials pertaining to the military career of John Gorham in Nova Scotia. Gorham organized a very successful military unit called the Rangers who were known for their unorthodox tactics.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:19:15 GMT

Topic: Fort Wayne Indian Agency collection — 1802-1815

Title: Fort Wayne Indian Agency collection — 1802-1815

Extent: 3 volumes

Abstract: The Fort Wayne Indian Agency collection consists of a letterbook kept by Indian agents John Johnston and Benjamin Franklin Stickney; an English-to-Ottawa dictionary, likely written by Stickney; and a memorandum book kept by Johnston during his time at Fort Wayne.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:22:28 GMT

Topic: William Knox papers — 1757-1811

Title: William Knox papers — 1757-1811

Extent: 3.75 linear feet

Abstract: The Knox collection is a significant resource for study of the pre-Revolutionary and Revolutionary turmoil engulfing Britain’s North American colonies between 1766 and 1782, as seen from deep within the heart of the colonial administration. An arch-administrator, empowered as Undersecretary of State, Knox maintained a consistent line articulating a theory of imperial power based upon an evangelically-tinged system of paternal power and filial obligation.

Clements Library

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:25:21 GMT

Topic: Edward Miller journal — 1794

Title: Edward Miller journal — 1794

Extent: 1 volume

Abstract: The Edward Miller journal contains daily entries between July and November of 1794 concerning his military service, including the building of Fort Wayne and the Battle of Fallen Timbers.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:33:29 GMT

Topic: J. R. (Hessian) journal — 1776-1784

Title: J. R. (Hessian) journal — 1776-1784

Extent: 80 pages

Abstract: This journal, kept by an author identified only as J. R., covers the service of a Hessian soldier during the Revolutionary War, including his trip to and from America and his service with the British auxiliary forces.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:35:34 GMT

Topic: David Selden papers — 1811-1819

Title: David Selden papers — 1811-1819

Extent: 10 items

Abstract: The David Selden papers contain correspondence from Selden, an American merchant in Liverpool, concerning business, the War of 1812, and conditions in Great Britain.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:36:27 GMT

Topic: John Graves Simcoe papers — 1774-1824 (bulk 1774-1804)

Title: John Graves Simcoe papers — 1774-1824 (bulk 1774-1804)

Extent: 0.75 linear feet

Abstract: The John Simcoe papers are a miscellaneous collection of letters and documents pertaining to Loyalist Colonel Simcoe’s career as an officer during the American Revolution and as Governor of Upper Canada (1792-1796)

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:39:12 GMT

Topic: Charles Townshend papers — 1660-1804 (bulk 1676-1748)

Title: Charles Townshend papers — 1660-1804 (bulk 1676-1748)

Extent: 9.5 linear feet

Abstract: The Townshend papers included the private and public records of Charles Townshend who served in various positions in the government of Great Britain including as Secretary of War during the Seven Years War and as Chancellor of the Exchequer where he authored the Townshend Acts to tax the American colonies.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:40:56 GMT

Topic: Crittenden family papers — 1837-1907 (bulk 1849-1889)

Title: Crittenden family papers — 1837-1907 (bulk 1849-1889)

Extent: 4 linear feet (approx. 1300 items)

Abstract: The Crittenden family papers contain the letters of a Kentucky family living in the California and Nevada frontiers. The material centers on the family of Alexander Parker Crittenden and his wife Clara Churchill Jones, and includes letters from their parents, siblings, and children. The collection also contains diaries, documents and financial records, and family photographs (daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, tintypes, cabinet cards, cartes-de-visite, and other paper prints). The collection documents the murder of Alexander Parker Crittenden as well as family members who fought on the Confederate side of the Civil War and who participated in mining and prospecting in the West.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:42:54 GMT

Topic: Green Clay collection — 1753-1818 (bulk 1813)

Title: Green Clay collection — 1753-1818 (bulk 1813)

Extent: 45 items

Abstract: The Green Clay collection contains letters and administrative documents related to the Kentucky militia under General Green Clay in the War of 1812. Included are letters and orders from General Samuel South, Colonel William Dudley, and Lewis Cass.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:43:45 GMT

Topic: Henry Strachey papers — 1768-1802

Title: Henry Strachey papers — 1768-1802

Extent: 1 linear foot

Abstract: The Henry Strachey papers contain the incoming and outgoing correspondence of British politician Henry Strachey, primarily concerning Strachey’s personal life, activities in North America, plantation in Florida, and political matters. Also included are copies of scattered financial and legal documents and two volumes of reports from colonial governors to the Earl of Dartmouth (1773), which Strachey had copied around 1776.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:44:32 GMT

Topic: Thomas Paine papers — 1776-1811

Title: Thomas Paine papers — 1776-1811

Extent: 12 items

Abstract: The Thomas Paine papers at the Clements Library consist of twelve manuscript items either by, to, or about the noted 18th century radical.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:45:04 GMT

Topic: Frederick North collection — 1775-1783

Title: Frederick North collection — 1775-1783

Extent: 5 items

Abstract: The Frederick North collection contains four letters written by North between 1775 and 1783 and a financial record for extraordinary military services and provisions incurred by and paid for by North and George Cooke as Paymasters of Forces, 1766-1767.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:45:50 GMT

Topic: Richard Oswald collection — 1779-1783

Title: Richard Oswald collection — 1779-1783

Extent: 6 items

Abstract: The Richard Oswald collection contains three of Oswald’s memoranda (“Plans for Russian Conquest of the North-West Coast–1781,” “London, 9th August 1779–General Observations, Relative to the Present State of the War,” and “Supplement to the Papers of August 1779 Relative to the State of the Present War”) and three letters to and from Oswald concerning the Revolutionary War.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 12:46:52 GMT

Topic: Richard Rush papers — 1812-1856

Title: Richard Rush papers — 1812-1856

Extent: 31 items

Abstract: The Richard Rush papers contain the incoming and outgoing correspondence of Richard Rush, on topics such as the War of 1812, family news, and political views.

Thomas Gage Papers Notes 2

19 March 2011 / tjlinzy / 0 Comments

Thomas Gage Papers Notes – William Clements Library

Who Was Thomas Gage?

General Thomas Gage (1719 – 1787) – A British Army General and North American Colonial Official. Gage was married to an American woman named Margaret Kemble. Thomas Gage was prominent in the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War), Pontiac’s Rebellion, and the American Revolution. He was the British commander-in-chief in the early days of the American Revolution.

Date: Friday, 11 March 2011 19:12:09 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 26 August 1774 – from Guy Park

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 122 – 1 August to 4 September 1774

Tags: gage, shawnee, guy johnson, seneca

Priority: None

Speaking of the Six Nations reports of earlier Congress at Johnson Hall, then later

“It was an old remark of sir William Johnsons [sic] that acts of Indiscretion were oftenest committed at the most critical Periods, whereby the wisest measures were often obstructed, I am very sorry to find the same verified in more than one Instance of late, but the principal mater of concern at this time, is, that our Enemies have artfully propagated a report that the conduct of the Virginians [ed. Dunmore’s War] is but a prelude to a more extensive design agains the other Indian Nations, who are to be attacked when the Shawanese are Subdued: This however unjust is to a suspicious people very alarming, and I flatter myself I have Satisfied a powerful and respectable part of the Indians, It can hardly be expected that the suspicion will be totally removed so long as the Virgininas continue to invade & attack them,”

Date: Friday, 11 March 2011 19:53:17 GMT

Topic: Stuart to Gage – 27 August 1774 – from Charles Town

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 122 – 1 August to 4 September 1774

Tags: gage, john stuart, creeks, choctaws, wright

Priority: None

“I have nothing new to communicate having received no late Intelligence form the Indian Countries. Since my last Sir James Wright is very pressing with me to Strengthen the hands and send out Parties of the Chactaws to Harrass the Creeks. Altho’ I think that the former are to be encouraged & Supported yet our appearing above board to employ them would be breaking all terms with the Creeks. and I have a messenger in the Nation to bring their ultimate resolution respecting the Satisfaction Demanded. before I take any open steps, I think proper to wait for his Return.”

Date: Friday, 11 March 2011 20:00:03 GMT

Topic: Gage to Haldimand – 29 August 1774 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 122 – 1 August to 4 September 1774

Tags: gage, haldimand, revolution

Speaks of Indians and how things are not perfect in the North, but not as bad as in the south., then

***”Matters wear a bad Aspect throughout this Province , and Connecticut has taken it upon them to support the Disturbers of this Country. You will be so good to proceed in your Designs about securing the Stores that may be of any use to bad People, for it may happen soon, that I shall be Advised to send for all the Force I can collect. and in that Case I must desire your Assistance this way and to bring all with you.”***

Date: Friday, 11 March 2011 20:32:54 GMT

Topic: Lernoult to Gage – 31 August 1774

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 122 – 1 August to 4 September 1774

Tags: detroit, gage, shawnee, haurons, lernoult

Priority: None

Lernoult telling Gage that some young Hurons around Detroit are causing problems and actively pushing the Shawnee cause in the recent Dunmore’s War. Says presents and provisions are being demanded. Very importunate

Date: Friday, 11 March 2011 20:48:32 GMT

Topic: Stuart to Gage – 14 September 1774 – from Charles Town

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: gage, long island, john stuart, choctaws, holsten, frontier, creeks

Stuart to Gage talking about how the Cherokees are being pushed by the Holsten settlers to sell more land and the pressure is causing more murders. Also talks of Shawnees of 30 number coming down and trying to get the Cherokees involved with Dunmore’s War on the Ohio forks.

“The latest account from the Cherokee Country are that about 30 northern Indians had just arrived at Chote probably Shawnese to engage their assistance if Possible and doubtless they will find many young fellows disposed to join them in doing mischief”

Date: Friday, 11 March 2011 21:16:05 GMT

Topic: Gage to Guy Johnson – 18 September 1774 – From Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: gage, guy johnson, law

“ I imagine there must be some mistake in which you mention respecting the Indians of Canada being Subject for the future in all Things to the Laws of England, Indians are commonly left to their own Usages and Customs in most Things; perhaps they may have been informed that in Cases of Murder, or Robbery, they woud [sic] be tried agreeable to English Law. You will know before this reaches you, that the French Laws in most Instances are to have Force in Canada, but I don’t imagine the Indians are much interested in this Matter.”

*****

“It is impossible for me to give you other than general Orders and Directions upon the Subject of this or your former Letters, especially in the uncertain State Indian Affairs are in at present. I am persuaded you will exert your utmost Influence to keep the Six NAtions, at least the greater part of them, steady to our Interests, to defeat every Artifice that may be used to disturb their Minds and alienate their Affections from us, as their pacifick [sic] Disposition will have great Influence in the present critical Period against any general League being formed against us.”

Thomas Gage and Richard Berringer Lernoult

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 13:25:45 GMT

Topic: Lernoult to Gage – 24 September 1774 – from Detroit

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: lernoult, gage, shawnee, ottawa, hurons

Priority: None

Good phrase to use in correspondence

… “the particulars of this affair, which I do not repeat here here least I should trespass on your Patience.”

Letter is about the release of a Virginian prisoner that had been held by the Shawnee and then given to some Ottawa warriors who were hunting on the Wabash. Lernoult praises the Chief who immediately went out to the Ottawa and demanded the young man’s release (Ezekiel Field, son of a Major Field living in Culpepper County, Virginia).

Also about some Hurons who complain about the treatment they rceived on the Wabash when delivering the war belts provided to them from Sir william Johnson.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 14:07:36 GMT

Topic: Council held by Richard Berringer Lernoult in Detroit 11 September 1774

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: detroit, gage, hurons, lernoult

Priority: None

in Lernoult to Gage, 24 September 1774

Hurons describe the rude treatment they received from the Miamis and other on the Wabash whilst trying to deliver the peace belts sent by Sir William Johnson. [ed. probably belts sent to try to quell the issues that lead to Dunmore’s War]

Interesting symbolism of the peace pipe being offered, but symbolically inhaled and spit out. An English flag is threatened to be burnt, because they felt a white flag should have been brought. Miamis say their friend the Foxes and Aiowaes [ed. Kiowas??]

Upon mentioning that they (Hurons) were bringing messages from the English, “several of the young warriors threw off their Breech Clouts, and exposing their privy parts, desired us to look and see if they were men.”

in response;

“Being much nettled at their behaviour we reproached them, saying You show your Bravour as we are but three, but notwithstanding your Number, we dare also shew our nakedness as well as you and convince you that we are men too: You listen to the Foxes and Aiowaes against whom we made War, we conquered them and obliged them to sue for peace, they have always since been our Slaves. You pretend to be brave; you are not, You are Cowards, and if you continue to behave in this manner you may become as they.”

Lernoult gets all huffy and says the Hurons were right to reproach the Miamis. He says he is going to tell (Dad) Gage in NY and will get direction on what to do about it. (then they’ll be sorry!)

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 15:04:38 GMT

Topic: Guy johnson to Gage – 29 September 1774 from Guy Parke

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: mohawks, gage, six nations, guy johnson

Priority: None

Guy Johnson telling Gage that the Six Nations are with him and could be used to chastise the Shawnees, but Gage needs to also make sure the frontier belligerents are dealt with as well.

Long description of the conference held in Johnstown follows in the pages.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 15:20:54 GMT

Topic: Gage to John Stuart – 3 October 1774 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: gage, john stuart

Priority: None

Gage,

“… am sorry to find the Virginians pursuing such violent Measures, as will probably bring on an Indian War, which as they rush into without Necessity, they must get out as they can. I think Sir James Wright must be content with the Satisfaction already received from the Creeks, and I have wrote him, as well as given the Secretary of state, my Opinion upopn this Subject.”

Gage is dealing with 2 Governors who are on the verge of starting Indian Wars over various slights with their frontier Indian neighbours. This is going on as the rebellion in Mass. builds. Doesn’t need it.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 15:41:46 GMT

Topic: Gage to Caldwell – 5th October 1774 – from Boston to Niagara

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: gage, caldwell

Priority: None

Gage dealing admin about Niagara, but finishes by telling Caldwell that if the Indians do strike, he hopes they only strike those that are annoying them [ed. supposedly the frontiersmen, like the Virginians] and not the King’s troops or posts.

Thomas Gage and De Peyster

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 15:44:35 GMT

Topic: Gage to de Peyster – 5 October 1774 – from Boston to Michilimackinac

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: de peyster, gage, michilimackinac

Priority: None

Gage telling De Peyster that an Indian War is coming (Dunmore’s) and to make preparations, but try to keep his Indians out of it.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 15:47:06 GMT

Topic: John Stuart to Gage – 6 October 1774 from Savannah

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: gage, john stuart, cherokees, creeks, choctaws

Priority: None

Stuart telling Gage that Wright has come to his senses re; the Creeks and it’s a good thing too, because the Cherokees seemed disposed to join them if it had come to war. However, the southern tribes cannot go to war as easily as they could in the past, because they don’t have the French/Spanish to supply them anymore and the Creeks are still fighting off the Choctaw as well.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 16:04:35 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 6 October 1774 – from Guy Parke

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 123 – 5 September – 14 October 1774

Tags: gage, six nations, delawares, shawnee, mingos, twightwees, guy johnson

Priority: None

Guy Johnson telling Gage that he needs money for all of the Congresses he has had to host, but it is money well spent, because the six nations are aligning with the English and should be keeping most of the others in line as well. He says he hears form a Virginian that Dunmore is raising 3,000 militia to assault the Shawnee.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 16:10:58 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage -21 October 1774 – from Guy Parke

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: gage, shawnee, guy johnson, dunmore

Priority: None

Guy Johnson telling Gage that he is getting reports that the Virginians are advancing through the frontier with what looks like an inevitability of conflict with the Shawnee.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 16:26:47 GMT

Topic: John Hancock, President of Provincial Congress to Gage – 29 October 1774

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: grievances, gage, Provincial Congress, compalints, massachusetts, john hancock

Priority: None

The Provincial Congress, John Hancock Presiding, refutes Gage’s previous letter saying the British preparations are not war like.

These are important as they mimic Indian complaints throughout history in the build up to conflict.

“Have you not by removing the ammunition of the Province and by all other means in your power endeavoured to put it in a state utterly defenceless? Have you not expressly declared that ‘resentment might justly be expected” from you troops merely in consequence of a referral of some Inhabitants of the Province to supply them with property undeniably their own?”

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 16:47:26 GMT

Priority: None

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 16:56:53 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 10 November 1774 – fro Guy Parke

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: gage, guy johnson, kirkland

Priority: None

Guy Johnon saying he has received a letter from Lord Dartmouth confirming his assumption of the duties of the deceased William Johnson. Also talks about unnamed individuals stirring up ideas with the Indians of the British scheming against the Indians and Americans.

“Some Weak persons in this Country have I hear told the Indians that the King is set against the Americans & Indians, with other ridiculous Stories, extremely dangerous, for Indians should have no knowledge of Internal disputes, or they Lessen their Ideas of Government, inspired them with Contempt for our Constitution, & it may encourage disaffected Tribes naturally sanguine in their Expectations to seize the opportunity for doing Mischief; the most Considerable Confederacy borders on & is most connected with this part of the Country, and it is peculiarly necessary that/people [sic] here should act with great discretion, as hitherto has been the Case, thro’ the good management of somepersons [sic] in it.”

Could this be Samuel Kirkland he is talking about? (Some Weak persons)

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 17:11:09 GMT

Topic: Gage to John Stuart – 14 November 1774 – form Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: gage, six nations, shawnee, john stuart, dunmore, creeks, wright

Priority: None

Gage telling Stuart that London will be talking to Dunmore to tell him to stop his agitating with the Indians given the perilous state of the colonies. Gage says he has told Wright to cool it too. Also says that the Shawnees have been told by the Six Nations that they will not accept the war belt, but will act as mediators.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 17:20:41 GMT

Topic: Gage to Guy Johnson – 14 November 1774 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Priority: None

Much the same as to Stuart on same day. London is trying to stop Dunmore. It is good that the Indians are in good spirit. He is glad that the Hurons are on side as well.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 17:32:42 GMT

Topic: John Stuart to Gage – 19 November 1774 -from Charles Town

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: gage, chickasaws, cherokees, choctaws, creeks, john stuart

Priority: None

Stuart telling Gage that Stuart has finally sorted out the problems between the Creeks and Wright as well as the Cherokees and Dunmore. All is good in the South seems to be the report.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 17:38:11 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 24 November 1774 – from Guy Park

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: dunmore, gage, shawnee, six nations, guy johnson

Priority: None

Guy Johnson telling Gage that the Sahawnees are asking a lot of questions about the problems between the colonies and the King. This disquiet along with Dunmore’s War has got the Six Nations in a stir. GJ says the Six Nations have 2,000 warriors.

Thomas Gage to John Stuart

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 17:42:46 GMT

Topic: Gage to John Stuart – 26 November 1774 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: gage, dunm, cherokees, virginia, john stuart, carolinas, creeks, kanawa river

Priority: None

Gage finishes a normal update letter with the following;

“I thank you for your private Letter of 15th September, and fear Affairs are worse with you than when you wrote, the Proceedings of the Congress are not what may be called conciliatory.”

Thomas Gage and Guy Johnson

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 17:46:17 GMT

Topic: Gage to Guy Johnson – 28 November 1774 – form Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: gage, guy johnson

Priority: None

Gage writing to Johnson on the reported end of Dunmore’s war on “moderate terms”. On the issue of the rebellion;

“I shoud [sic] imagine the Report you mention to be spread amongst the Indians of the King’s being set against the Americans and Indians can have but little Weight with them while they feel no Difference in our Conduct towards them, and that you will meet no Difficulty as I doubt not it will be your Endeavour, to explain these Matters to them, and to show how little they affect them.”

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 17:55:34 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 14 December 1774 – from Guy Park

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 124 – 15 October – 24 December 1774

Tags: tampering, gage, congress, kirkland, shawnee, guy johnson

Priority: None

GJ re; rebellion rumours;

The Jealousys I before mentioned, with the imprudent Stories of some White People to them regarding the disputes with great Britain, that the King was set against the Colonies and Indians & had much agitated them, but some persons of Influence exerted themselves at Onondaga, and observed that it would be time enough to suspect us when we proceeded farther,…”

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 18:17:36 GMT

Topic: Gage to John Stuart – 28 December 1774 – From boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: tampering, gage, john stuart, six nations

Priority: None

Tells Stuart of end of Dunmore’s War.

about trouble makers in the north with Indians;

“Ill affected People in these parts have been tampering with the Six Nations and other Tribes, with Designs to perswade [sic] them that the King had deserted their Interest, and that of all Americans; and hinting his Orders to attack the Shawnese.”

Gage is telling Stuart so he can head off any similar attempt in the South.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 18:34:43 GMT

Topic: Gage to Guy Johnson – 28 December 1774 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: gage, guy johnson, shawnee

Priority: None

Gage telling GJ that dunmore’s War is over and that he is sure that GJ will dissuade trouble makers in the Six NAtions. Gage tells GJ to make sure to let the Indians know that the should attach themselves to the King, but if they do attack anyone that it should be just the ones who caused the offense, not the King’s troops in general.

Thomas Gage and Lt. Col. Caldwell

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 18:38:25 GMT

Topic: Gage to Caldwell – 28 December 1774 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: gage, niagara, caldwell

Priority: None

Gage saying the same to Caldwell. Keep the Indians in good humour to the King and don’t let any troublemakers convince them otherwise.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 18:41:54 GMT

Topic: Gage to Lernoult – 28 December 1774 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: detroit, gage, shawnee, dunmore, lernoult

Priority: None

Gage saying the same to Lernoult. Keep the Indians in good humour to the King and don’t let any troublemakers convince them otherwise. Dunmore’s War over, etc.

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 18:43:10 GMT

Topic: Harvard College to Gage 1774

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: gage, butt lickers, harvard

Priority: None

“The Corporation of Harvard College wait upon you, to testify our Loyalty to the King and our Respect to your Excellency, constituted by him the Governor of this Province” …As it our Duty, we assure your Excellency it is equally our Inclination, to employ our best Endeavours, that the Students under our Care, may be formed to that Piety & Virtue, that just Submission to Government, and Esteem for the Principles and Spirit of the British Consitution, whcih may under them Ornaments of the Church, and Blessing to the State.”

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 18:56:36 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 14 January 1775 – From Guy Parke

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: tampering, gage, kirkland, guy johnson

Priority: None

GJ telling Gage that the trouble is being stirred ever more in Onondaga. Whoever it is is bringing information from the south nd says the Indians will be cut off from trade supplies if they support the King.

“The story in General, is, That all goods are stopped, and that unless the Indians joyn [sic] immediately they will be ever deprived of them & of the public favor [sic], and Steps are privately taking to procure resolution of their fort –“

Kirkland still? Maybe?

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 19:13:27 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 1 February 1775 – from Guy Parke

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: gage, congress, shawnee, guy johnson, six nations

Priority: None

GJ has gout and can’t write much, but tells of and Indian congress where ..

”They have laid before me some Extraordinary particulars of News, received from the Shawanese respecting the Indians and the Virginians, as also concerning the steps taking to induce them to bear a parte [sic] in the dispute with Great Britain.”

Thomas Gage and Guy Carleton

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 19:36:54 GMT

Topic: Carleton to Gage – 4 February 1775 – from Quebec

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: gage, carleton, canadians

Very interesting letter that refers to a letter sent by Gage to Carleton on 25 December 1774. I will go back to try to find it.

Starts out;

“As this goes by Lieutenant CLeveland of the 7th, I will venture to be more explicit about what you mention of the Canadians and Indians in your letter of 25th December last, than I thought it prudent to do by Post, as one may rationally suppose, those, who seem resolved to force their Country into Rebellion, Jealous of the Correspondence, may intercept our Letters,”…

talks about the Canadians being happy with the Act [suppose the Quebec Act]. Says the Gentry support the government, but doesn’t speak well of the militia.

Later;

“ As to the Indians, Government having thought it expedient to let Matters go in that Channel, I have ever considered the late Sir William Johnson, to whom, I suppose, Colonel Guy Johnson succeeds, as having their political cConcerns under his immediate Direction, with which I never interfered further, than their Commercial Interests, or the private Property they possess in the Country, required, and upon this Principle Major Campbell’s Commission was granted; however, if I I am not greatly deceived in my Intelligence, not only the Domicilies of the Province, but all of the neighbouring Indians are very much at your Disposal, whenever you are pleased to call upon them, and what you Recommend shall be complied with __”

Gage has obviously asked about the Canadians and Indians on 25 December 1774, so need to find that leter.

Thomas Gage and Guy Johnson

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 20:12:36 GMT

Topic: Gage to Guy Johnson – 5 February 1775 – from boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Tags: gage, kirkland, missionaries, shawnee, guy johnson, six nations

about the indians and rumors from the south…

”you have it in your power to set them right in you are to tell them, the King is their Friend, and expects them to be his, and as to any fears they may have from a Non-importation they are groundless, as the King can and will see that the Traders supply them/as [sic] formerly on a like Occasion. thro’ Canada, and which Channel it is not improbible [sic] they will always hereafter be supplied through you should should put them on their Guard against believing any reports that may be brought them, as they are only intended to destroy their peace and to Involve them into Difficulty with those who are Rebelling against their lawfull [sic] King. the Indians should be put in mind that all of the favours they have ever received have been from the Crown, and not from the Provinces. Missionarys [sic] have it often in their power to lead the minds of the people wrong therefore by all means do what you can to get the Indians to drive such Incendiarys [sic] from amongst them, explain the Matter to them, by telling them they only mean to lead them into the troubles they have brought upon themselves. and the Indians well know that in all their landed disputes the Crown has always been their friend.”

“Missionarys” – Sounds like Samuel Kirkland

Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775

Date: Tuesday, 15 March 2011 20:29:55 GMT

Topic: Gage to Carleton – 25 December 1774

Annotation: ??

Tags: gage, carleton

There should be a letter somewhere that has Gage asking Carleton about Canadians and Indians, but it is not in Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 125 – 25 December 1774 – 10 February 1775, where it should be.

Neither is it in 124 which ends with 24 December 1774.

Carleton references it in his answer on 4 February 1775.

Very Important.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 13:39:03 GMT

Topic: Guy Johnson to Gage – 13 February 1775 – from Guy Parke

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 126 – 11 February – 20 March 1775

Tags: gage, kirkland, missionaries, shawnee, oneidas, six nations, guy johnson

Priority: None

GJ telling Gage that the Oneidas were the source of the recent rumours about the supply chain cut-off by the Rebels. This sounds like it must be Kirkland.

Also mentions the results of the Virginian / Ohio Indian treaty to end Dunmore’s War

*** enclosed documents include descriptions of the battle on the Kanawa

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 13:49:32 GMT

Topic: Gage to Carleton – 19 February 1775 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 126 – 11 February – 20 March 1775

Tags: gage, carleton

Priority: None

Gage seeking Carleton’s acknowledgment of receiving his letter of 25 December 1774. This is the letter I can’t find and obviously is asking about raising Canadian and Indian forces, probably to harry the frontier to relieve some of the pressure on Boston.

“Your Letter of 25th Untimo [January 1775] is received and you see that I follow your Method of numbering my Letters, which in the present times is very proper. My last Letter to you is not acknowledged, it was dated on 25th of December.”

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 14:23:11 GMT

Topic: Gage to Caldwell – 4 March 1775 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 126 – 11 February – 20 March 1775

Tags: gage, standard, caldwell

Priority: None

Another one of Gage’s letters to to keep the Indians friendly

Good example of standard paragraph;

“I would have you continue to do all in your power to keep the Indians in good humour, and to assure them on all Occasions of the King’s friendship for them. If they will go to War, not to Wage with the Kings Troops, but with those that provoke them, and they will continue to receive their supplys [sic] from the Posts.”

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 14:37:40 GMT

Topic: Gage to Guy Johnson – 10 March 1775 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 126 – 11 February – 20 March 1775

Tags: gage, kirkland, missionaries, revolution, supply, dunmore, guy johnson

Long letter telling GJ to make sure the Indians know that the Kings Troops will not attack them and not to listen to the missionaries. Says surely they can get other missionaries from Albany that are loyal to the King. The Indians will be supplied by the King and GJ can get supply, especially gun powder from Canada and

“It should be brought the safest and surest Rout [sic], and when your supply’s [sic] are near you, doubtless the Indians will Assist to escort them safe to you.”

So, we have Carleton directing the use of Indians to secure supply lines from Canada.

Acknowledges the report that 7 Seneca are being held at Fort Pitt and accuses the southern people of doing it to draw the Six Nations into the rebellion. Has told Dunmore to investigate.

Also speaks of the 1768 boundary disputes and needs to be addressed to Governor Colden of it.

Finishes with,

“In all of your Conferences, you will do well if you can convince the Indians, that the People, that, come amongst them, with these reports to disturb their peace, only mean to to deceive them, and draw them into confusion with themselves, and for that purpose have perswaded [sic] the Shawanese to send such Messages to them; tell them likewise that they will find they will never be Molested by the Kings Troops, while the chuse [sic] to be his friends, but on the Contrary, that they may expect from him every Assistance, and Justice, he can give them.”

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 15:15:33 GMT

Topic: John Stuart to Gage – 27 March 1775 – from Charles Town

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 127 – 21 March – 22 April 1775

Tags: gage, delawares, cherokees, shawnee, choctaws, john stuart, chickasaws, creeks

Priority: 5

Stuart writing to Gage about range of land issues in the south. Also;

“ the Choctaws continue to push the Creeks with vigor and that they are in the most friendly Disposition towards us; and my advice from the Chickasaws are to the same purpose, they rejected a proposal of a Confederacy with the Shawnese and Delawares.”

and

“If my Intelligence from the Cherokee Nation can be depended upon, the Shawnese, etc [I think etc] are not satisfied and if they could prevail upon the Southern Tribes to join them, seem inclined to give fresh trouble to the Virginians, who I think from my Lord Dunmore’s Account were rather roughly handled.”

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 15:47:36 GMT

Topic: Proceeding of Mohegans to Guy Johnson – 25 March 1775 – at Guy Park

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 127 – 21 March – 22 April 1775

Tags: oneidas, guy johnson, mohegans, joseph johnson

Included in GJ’s correspondence to Gage on 7 April 1775

Translated, or at least presented, by Joseph Johnson

Long proceeding on the troubles and how the Mohegans have dealt with the preceding months. Near the end though is an interesting bit. Travelling from Connecticut, they were careful what they said to preserve their safety, but heard from Connecticut people;

“… it would be very unhappy for them if his Majesties [sic] Troops shoud [sic] be in the Bowels of the Country, and the Indians come upon the back settlements. Other said that it woud[sic] be very unhappy if the Eastern Indians & the Western Inds. held a private Correspondence together in these difficult times, & were united to join together his Majesties [sic] Troops.”

Did letters like these give the British the idea that the Rebels were especially worried about the Indians and the back settlements?

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 16:07:27 GMT

Topic: Intelligence – dated 30 March 1775 -Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 127 – 21 March – 22 April 1775

Tags: boston, congress, intelligence, articles of war

Priority: None

Describes;

“The Congress have been all this week employed in Adopting the Articles of War, and the regualtions of the Army (as published last year) to their Militia. Many of the Articles they have adopted intire [sic], some they have altered, and some they have rejected altogether__”

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 16:16:12 GMT

Topic: Gage to Guy Johnson – 13 April 1775- from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 127 – 21 March – 22 April 1775

Tags: seneca, gage, kirkland, missionaries, cayuga, six nations, guy johnson

Gage to GJ on misonaries again. Gage is obviously very worried about the stirring up of the Six Nations by the missionaries.

“As to the troublesome Missionarys [sic] you must by all means get the Indians to Rout them, as that is the only Method can be fallen upon to keep the from Mischief; for while they are suffered to be among the Indians, they will be continually making them uneasy. I don’t know how these People are paid their Salary’s [sic]; if by the Crown, it must be withheld, and not paid but to such as will Act Consistent, And this Man [Kirkland?] that has explained the passages out of the Prints has acted much Otherwise. Before he Attempts to return from his excursion here, great pains should be taken to prejudice the Indians against him, and tell them the New England People only wanted those/that [sic] had lately left them to Assist in Opposing the Troops, that they might have it more in their power hereafter, to drive them back from their present habitations, which they would certainly do, did not the King protect the Indians, and who will at all time see Justice done to them.”

So here we see the building picture in Gage’s mind. Tells GJ to get Indians favourable to the Crown, use Indians to escort supplies, tells Indians to “rout” the missionaries. This along with the Mohegan delegations stories of how fearful the Rebels are of an Indian/British alliance.

Along with the pressure on Boston, Gage is entering territory that he will soon cross over to ordering Indian use with his 3 June letter to Carleton and his 12 September letter to John Stuart.

Date: Wednesday, 16 March 2011 16:41:48 GMT

Topic: Gage to Carleton – 21 April 1775 – from Boston

Annotation: Clements Library – Gage Papers – American Series 127 – 21 March – 22 April 1775

Tags: frontier, gage, carleton, massachusetts

In full;

“(No. 7)

Boston 21 April 1775

Sir,

Hostilities are now Commenced in the Province, Occasioned by a Detachment, goin to Seize a Magazine of the Rebels on the 19th Instant [April]. This Province with those Adjacent are Arming and Act as if they meant to commit fresh Hostilities, as this is the case, a Number of Canadians and Indians, would be of great use, on the Frontiers of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Under the Command of a Judicious person. Your prudence must direct you in this matter.

I am etc. [etc, I think]

His Excellce. Genl. Carleton”

“a Number of Canadians and Indians, would be of great use, on the Frontiers of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Under the Command of a Judicious person. Your prudence must direct you in this matter.”

this is key for the actions of Carleton. gage has given him leave to use the Indians as he sees fit.

Author: tjlinzy (Page 1 of 2)

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Thomas Gage and Guy Carleton

Thomas Gage and Guy Johnson

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